A

Acidic sourdough- a noticeably sour tasting sourdough due to the accumulation of lactic and acetic acid which are byproducts of fermentation. The pH of a sourdough starter drops over time after being fed as these acids accumulate.

All-purpose flour- a medium gluten wheat flour that normally has no bran or germ

Ancient grains- grain varieties with a history of original cultivation believed to be from earlier than the 5th century CE and largely left unchanged. Varieties include emmer, spelt, and einkorn, and Khorasan (Kamut).

Ascorbic acid- another name for a type of Vitamin C, sometimes added to wheat doughs to strengthen gluten networks

Autolyse- the practice of mixing flour and water (or other liquid) before adding other ingredients. This starts the process of gluten formation, gives bran an opportunity to absorb liquid, and promotes the extensibility of dough which can be helpful or not depending on the qualities of your flour.

B

Baguette- a long narrow loaf of French bread, from the French word for stick

Bakers’ percentages or bakers’ math- the standard way bakers keep track of formulas. Everything is measured in relation to the total flour. For example, the water in a formula may be 85% of the amount of flour (which is always 100%). This facilitates comparison and scaling.

Batârd- an oblong hearth bread, from the French term for bastard as it is neither round like a boule nor long like a baguette

Bolt- to sift flour to remove larger bits (primarily bran). This name comes from the bolts of cloth used for sifting in the past. Bolted flour can refer to flour with only a portion of the bran sifted out.

Boule- a round hearth loaf, from the French word for ball

Bran- the outermost layer of a grain kernel containing fiber, B vitamins, and various minerals and antioxidants. The bran also adds color and texture to whole grain flours.

Bread flour- a wheat flour, normally with no bran or germ, with protein in the range of at least 11%-13%, making it better suited for bread baking than all-purpose flour

Bulk fermentation- the first stage of fermentation of a bread dough, before the dough is divided, shaped, and proofed, starting when the mixing or kneading process ends

C

Crust- the exterior of a loaf of bread

Crumb- the interior of a loaf of bread, usually used with descriptors like tight or open, referring to the airiness of the bread. Very elastic and extensible bread (which, in other words, had been managed for appropriate gluten development) can be described as having an open crumb.

E

Elasticity- the property of gluten that allows dough to pull back after stretching (like a rubber band). It is the complement of extensibility; ideally you want a balance between the two.

Endosperm- the largest component of a grain kernel consisting mostly of the starchy carbohydrates grains are known for, as well as protein and some vitamins and minerals. The proteins gliadin and glutenin that combine to form gluten are found in this layer. This is the part of the wheat berry that is milled into white flour (all-purpose, bread, and pastry flour).

Enzymes- a compound that facilitates chemical reactions. For example, the main enzyme in the fermentation of sourdough bread is amylase that breaks down starches into complex sugars and then simple sugars.

Enzymatic activity- the enzymes in grain, when activated by water (as in sprouting), break starches into complex sugars, complex sugars into simple sugars, and break protein chains. Too much enzymatic activity causes gluten networks in wheat (or the gel framework of rye) doughs to break down prematurely.

Extensibility- the property of gluten that allows dough to stretch. It is the complement of elasticity; ideally you want a balance between the two.

Extraction- a descriptor of flour that refers to how much of the whole grain remains after sifting out bran and germ. For example, an 85% extraction flour means that 15% of the grain has been sifted out.

F

Farro- spelt, emmer, and einkorn. These three types of ancient wheat grains are collectively known as farro in Italian, although each has a distinctive flavor. As flour, they develop weak gluten networks that can be somewhat difficult to work with.

Fermentation- in bread baking, a period of rest for the dough that allows your recipe’s fermentation agent (instant yeast, sourdough starter, etc.) to transform the flour’s carbohydrates into carbon dioxide, a small amount of alcohol, and lactic and acetic acids, causing the dough to rise and contributing the airiness, lift, and flavor you expect. In recipes that call for two fermentations, the first is typically referred to as the bulk fermentation, and the second, occurring after the dough is worked and shaped into a loaf, is called proofing.

G

Germ- the most nutritious grain layer rich in healthy fats, vitamin E, B vitamins, and antioxidants. While the fats in the germ can cause a whole grain flour to go rancid more quickly, they also add a world of flavor and health benefits.

Gluten- a compound protein found in grains like wheat, rye, barley, and triticale that traps the carbon dioxide formed by fermentation and gives structure to bread made with these flours. Gluten is created when two smaller proteins, glutenin and gliadin, are activated by the presence of water. Some people may have allergies or intolerances to gluten related to their body's ability to digest this protein.

H

Hard wheat- wheat varieties that have higher protein content and are best for baking bread

Hearth bread- free-standing breads baked without a pan on a hearth or substitute. The hearth is the floor of an oven. In a home oven, the hearth can be replaced by a baking stone or by the bottom of a Dutch oven.

Heirloom or heritage grains- varieties of wheat that originated under cultivation prior to the mid-twentieth century that have survived for several generations usually due to the efforts of private individuals. Varieties include Turkey Red, Red Fife, Rouge de Bordeaux, and Sonora.

High extraction flour- a flour that has a portion of the bran has been removed, so it has qualities that fall in between those of whole grain and white flours. It is more flavorful and nutritious because it retains some of the bran, but it’s easier to bake with because some of the bran has also been removed.

Hydration- the amount of water in a dough relative to the amount of flour, expressed as a percentage. It is calculated by dividing the water weight by the flour weight, each typically measured in grams. E.g. 350g water/500g flour = 0.7 * 100 = 70%. Whole grains require higher hydration since bran absorbs more liquid. Higher hydration can produce a more open crumb, but pushed too far, a loaf won’t rise well as the extra hydration causes gluten networks to break down sooner.

L

Landrace grains- a local variety of a grain that has distinctive characteristics arising from development and adaptation over time to conditions of a localized geographic region and that typically displays greater genetic diversity than types subjected to formal breeding practices

Levain/leaven- the French word for leaven. It is the same thing as sourdough starter but is often used specifically to mean a preferment inoculated with sourdough starter that is used to leaven bread. I.e., pain au levain simply means sourdough bread.

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB)- the primary microbes in sourdough. During fermentation they produce lactic and acetic acid which contribute to the distinct flavor to sourdough bread.

M

Malt- grain that has been sprouted and then dehydrated or roasted. Diastatic malt is heated less so that it contains active enzymes. It is often added to flour to strengthen gluten networks. If added to excess (more than 1% relative to the flour) the enzymatic activity can result in gummy bread. Non-diastatic malt has been heated to the point where the enzymes are killed, so it is primarily used for flavoring.

Modern grains- grain varieties developed using modern breeding techniques; however, grain varieties better adapted to their growing environment have been developed by plant breeders throughout history. Along with general trends in agriculture over the last century, yield and uniformity have been prioritized over other qualities but there is interest in developing varieties that are suitable for smaller scale and sustainable growing practices; a popular example in the Mid-Atlantic and among CGA growers and bakers is the NuEast variety.

P

Pentosans- polysaccharides found in rye dough that bind to water, creating a viscous dough. This gel captures carbon dioxide, allowing rye bread to rise.

Phytonutrients- beneficial chemical compounds that produce distinct colors in plants

Preferment- a portion of dough that is inoculated with sourdough or yeast to kick off the fermentation process prior to mixing the final dough. A levain is a sourdough preferment. Preferments can strengthen dough structure and contribute more complex flavor to the final bread.

Proof- the fermentation period that occurs between shaping and baking bread loaves

Pseudograins- seeds that resemble grains but in botanical terms are not considered grains, including amaranth, buckwheat, quinoa, and wild rice

Porridges, scalds, and soakers- different ways of treating grains and seeds before inclusion into bread. These methods soften grains or seeds and keep them from pulling water out of the final dough. Grains are typically cracked or coarsely milled beforehand, although the same processes can be applied to flours. Soaking involves covering the ingredients with water to allow the water to be absorbed. Porridges refer to cooking the ingredients in water. Scalds require covering the ingredients with boiling or just boiled water. Scalds can be further saccharified by holding them at 150°F for 4-5 hours.

R

Red wheat- wheat varieties with a reddish husk with, typically, a somewhat higher protein content than white wheat. The phytonutrients creating the red color contributes to a more distinct flavor.

Retarding- the practice of slowing down fermentation by moving dough to a cold environment, like a fridge. This contributes to the predigestion of grains and allows flavors to develop, as well as offering flexible timing to the baking process.

Roller milling- the modern, commercial method of milling grains into flour by breaking them between cylindrical rollers. This typically results in a finer ground flour, but that is achieved by filtering out most of the bran and its nutrients.

S

Saccharification- in bread baking, the process of holding a scald at a high temperature long enough for carbohydrates to be broken into component sugar molecules, which contributes sweetness to bread

Soft wheat- wheat varieties that have lower protein content, best used for pastry and flatbreads

Sourdough- a leavening agent for bread made by capturing wild lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeasts in a mixture of flour and water. Bread made with sourdough is also referred to as sourdough.

Spring wheat- a crop planted in the spring and harvested in early fall. Compared to winter wheats, spring wheats have the highest protein content and are typically used for bread flour.

Starch attack- a reaction that occurs when there is too much enzymatic activity in a dough (primarily rye) and the enzymes break down the gels that hold carbon dioxide, thereby preventing the bread from rising properly. This is the primary reason that most rye breads are made with sourdough, because the acids produced by sourdough fermentation keep the enzymes under control.

Stone ground milling- the method of milling grains into flour by crushing grains between two large, specially designed stones. The resulting grain components might remain in larger particles, but even if the mixture is refined with filtering screens, more of the bran and its nutrients inevitably remain included. Flours with a greater amount of bran remaining tend to absorb more water and need increased hydration.

T

Triticale- a hybrid of wheat and rye

V

Vital wheat gluten- gluten that is extracted from wheat flour. It is often used in bread baking as an additive when flour has weak gluten.

W

White flour- flours made exclusively from the endosperm of the wheat, including pastry, all-purpose, and bread flours. These are different from whole wheat flours made from white wheat varieties.

White wheat- wheat varieties with a natural/neutral colored husk. White wheat tends to have lower protein than red wheat.

Whole grain flour/bread- flour that includes all parts of the grain – bran, germ, and endosperm – in the same proportion as in the grains before milling; or bread made with such flour

Winter wheat- a crop planted in the fall, grown over the winter, and harvested in the spring. Winter wheats tend to be lower in protein, higher in minerals, and are best for bread.

Y

Yeast- a type of fungus used to leaven bread. Commercial yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Sourdough will contain different varieties of wild yeasts. Yeasts leaven dough by producing carbon dioxide through fermentation. They also contribute to flavor by producing alcohol (which evaporates during baking).

CGA Member Mark Woodward is a co-author of this resource. In retirement, Mark has become passionate about baking bread, specializing in naturally leavened breads made with home milled whole grain flours, frequently using grains grown by farmer friends in the Mid-Atlantic Region.